Carol Myers-Scotton and Shana Poplack are influential figures in the study of code-switching and code-mixing in sociolinguistics. While Myers-Scotton is known for her work on the Markedness Model and the Matrix Language Frame Model, Shana Poplack is known for her empirical research and the development of various theoretical frameworks. Here are some examples of Hoffman and Poplack's analyses of code-switching and code-mixing:
### Shana Poplack
1. **Function of Code-Switching**:
Poplack (1980) identified different types of code-switching based on their functions. She distinguished between:
- **Tag-Switching**: The insertion of a tag phrase from one language into an utterance in another language, e.g., "It's a beautiful day, ¿verdad?"
- **Intersentential Switching**: Switching languages at sentence boundaries, e.g., "I'm going to the store. ¿Quieres venir?"
- **Intrasentential Switching**: Switching languages within a single sentence, e.g., "I was going to la tienda to buy some bread."
2. **Constraints on Code-Switching**:
Poplack proposed two main constraints on intrasentential code-switching:
- **Equivalence Constraint**: Code-switching occurs at points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, allowing for smooth transitions, e.g., "I’ll start la clase when you’re ready."
- **Free Morpheme Constraint**: Code-switching cannot occur between a bound morpheme and a lexical form unless the lexical form has been phonologically integrated into the language of the bound morpheme, e.g., "I’m eat-ing a taco."
### Charlotte Hoffman
Charlotte Hoffman's work often focuses on bilingualism and its manifestations in various communities, including code-switching and code-mixing. Here are some examples from her analyses:
1. **Code-Switching in Bilingual Communities**:
Hoffman (1991) discusses how bilingual speakers use code-switching to achieve various conversational goals, such as emphasizing a point, showing solidarity, or clarifying a statement. For instance, in a bilingual Spanish-English community, a speaker might say, "I told him already, pero no me escuchó" (I told him already, but he didn’t listen to me).
2. **Sociolinguistic Factors Influencing Code-Switching**:
Hoffman explores the sociolinguistic factors that influence code-switching, such as the speaker's proficiency in both languages, the social context, and the relationship between speakers. For example, a bilingual child might switch between languages depending on whether they are speaking to a family member or a teacher.
### Examples of Hoffman and Poplack’s Analysis:
- **In Montreal’s Bilingual Community**: Poplack’s studies often involve the French-English bilingual community in Montreal. An example from her research might be a sentence like, “Je suis allé au store pour acheter des eggs” (I went to the store to buy some eggs), demonstrating intrasentential switching.
- **In Welsh-English Code-Switching**: Hoffman’s work includes studies of Welsh-English bilinguals. An example might be, “I’m going to siopa for some bread” (I’m going shopping for some bread), where “siopa” is a Welsh word integrated into the English sentence.
These examples illustrate how both Hoffman and Poplack analyze the structural and functional aspects of code-switching and code-mixing, providing insights into the linguistic and social dynamics of bilingual communication.
