the differences among bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, and plurilingualism

 

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Here is a detailed description of the differences among bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, and plurilingualism (often spelled plurilingualism), with specific examples from the Indonesian education context (schools, colleges, and universities).

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1. Bilingualism

Definition: The ability to use two languages proficiently. In educational settings, it often refers to instruction or communication using two distinct languages separately.

Key Feature: Languages are seen as separate systems. The goal is often balanced competence in both.

Indonesian Context Examples:

• Schools: An Sekolah Dasar (SD) Internasional in Jakarta uses English for Science and Math, and Indonesian for Social Studies and Religion. Students switch between the two languages by subject, but rarely mix them in the same class.

• Colleges: A Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata (Tourism College) in Bali requires students to complete assignments in both Indonesian and English, but they must submit separate versions – a clean Indonesian essay and a clean English translation.

• Universities: At Universitas Negeri Malang, a teacher training program for elementary school teachers requires students to pass both Bahasa Indonesia proficiency exams and English language exams (e.g., TOEFL) as separate graduation requirements.

2. Multilingualism

Definition: The ability to use three or more languages. In a societal or individual sense, it acknowledges multiple distinct languages in the same context.

Key Feature: Like bilingualism, it treats languages as separate, but involves more than two. Often used to describe the linguistic repertoire of a community or country.

Indonesian Context Examples:

• Schools: A Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) in Medan, North Sumatra, teaches in Indonesian, offers Mandarin as an elective, and has local content in Bahasa Batak (e.g., Toba). Students are expected to know which language is appropriate for which class.

• Colleges: A Politeknik in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, has students who speak Bahasa Dawan at home, Indonesian in lectures, and must learn English for their tourism management diploma. Assessments treat these as separate skills.

• Universities: Universitas Udayana (Bali) offers separate courses in Indonesian, English, Japanese, and Balinese (Bahasa Bali). A student may graduate having studied four languages, but they are taught and tested in isolation.

3. Translanguaging

Definition: The dynamic and fluid practice where multilingual speakers integrate features from multiple languages (or dialects) to make meaning, communicate, and learn. It treats the speaker’s entire linguistic repertoire as an integrated system, rather than separate boxes.

Key Feature: Breaks down artificial boundaries between “named” languages. Focuses on the process of meaning-making, not on adhering to one language code.

Indonesian Context Examples:

• Schools (Primary): In a Sekolah Dasar in rural Flores, a teacher explains fractions: “Anak-anak, lihat gambar ini. One half of the circle is warna merah. Jadi, satu per dua dari lingkaran itu merah.” Here, Indonesian, English (math term), and local imagery are mixed seamlessly to aid comprehension.

• Schools (Secondary): A junior high student in a SMP in Pontianak writes a science report: “Reaksi kimia ini menghasilkan gas CO2. So, the bubbles you see are from that gas. Jadi, gelembung itu tanda reaksi berlangsung.” The student translanguages between Indonesian and English, not because of poor competence, but because both languages together convey the concept more clearly.

• Colleges (D3 – Diploma): In a marketing class at a vocational college in Surabaya, students do a group presentation using Javanese (to joke with local classmates), Indonesian (for formal data), and English (for international terms like “branding,” “engagement”). The lecturer encourages this mixing as long as the idea is understood.

• Universities: A lecture at Universitas Hasanuddin (Makassar) uses Buginese, Indonesian, and English in a single explanation of a medical term. Students then discuss in mixed Indonesian-English-Buginese. The assessment accepts answers in any combination of the three, as long as the medical concept is correct.

4. Plurilingualism

Definition: A concept from the Council of Europe (CEFR) that refers to an individual’s evolving and holistic repertoire of linguistic and cultural competences. A plurilingual person does not have “two separate languages” but a single, complex repertoire that includes varying levels of competence in different languages, plus intercultural skills.

Key Feature: Emphasizes the individual’s life experience and partial competencies (e.g., can read but not speak a language). Values the ability to switch between languages and use them for cross-cultural understanding. Related to but broader than translanguaging (plurilingualism is the competence; translanguaging is the practice).

Indonesian Context Examples:

• Schools: A 5th grader in an SD Negeri in Ambon might speak Ambonese Malay fluently, read Indonesian textbooks well, know a few English songs (but can’t write English), and understand some Javanese from TV soap operas. The school recognizes this whole profile as a resource, not a deficit. A project might ask the child to interview a neighbor using Ambonese Malay, then write a summary in Indonesian.

• Colleges: At a Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Kesehatan (Health College) in Yogyakarta, a nursing student has partial knowledge: fluent in Indonesian and Javanese (dialects), can understand some English medical terms (e.g., “hypertension”) but cannot speak English, and knows basic Arabic phrases from home. The college allows her to use any of these languages during clinical practice with patients, and she documents in Indonesian. Her competence is valued as a whole.

• Universities: Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) offers a “Bahasa dan Budaya” course where a student from Papua has a repertoire including: Bahasa Indonesia (advanced), English (intermediate), Bahasa Biak (native), and Malay (basic). The final project asks the student to reflect on how her whole repertoire helps her negotiate cultural differences in dorm life. She does not need to prove equal skill in all – it’s about leveraging what she knows.

   

  In short: Bilingualism and multilingualism focus on the number of separate languages. Translanguaging focuses on the fluid practice of mixing them. Plurilingualism focuses on the individual’s entire, uneven, and ever-growing linguistic repertoire across contexts.